How We’ll Get to Cheap, Long-Range EV Cars, Trucks, and SUVs
The investment in automotive electrification has ramped up sharply in recent years, with new advances in battery chemistry, motor and controller technology, and charging infrastructure being announced almost weekly. We've generally spared our readers the chemistry lesson required to describe every new battery electrolyte formula to come along, but we've passed along the most novel, interesting, and promising of concepts that promise to advance electrification. Here are highlights from just the past two years.
Maybe Pair Capacitors and Batteries?
Chemical batteries are great at storing energy. They just can't do it extremely quickly. Capacitors can accept and release huge amounts of energy quickly but can't hold this energy for very long. Capacitors on cars aren't new—Mazda introduced its i-ELOOP energy recovery capacitor on the 2014 Mazda6 sedan. But in November 2019 we reported on a joint research effort by Lamborghini and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, to triple the energy storage capacity of ultracapacitors, by replacing the porous activated carbon used in most capacitors with a new powder composed of metal-organic framework compounds comprising primarily of nickel, copper, and molecular carbon that effectively doubles the surface area inside the same volume/mass of powder, which is how it doubles the energy density. Research continues, and although ultracapacitors will likely never replace chemical batteries, this Lambo/MIT ultracapacitor could greatly reduce the mass of the energy-storage battery required, guaranteeing both nimble handling, ferocious acceleration, and track-worthy regenerative braking.
Mine the Seafloor
A perennial and legitimate argument against complete electrification is the question of ethical and environmentally sensitive sourcing of the various metals and other materials required. So in June 2020 we reported on the discovery of naturally occurring polymetallic nodules that line the Pacific Ocean's abyssal deep seafloor in the Clarion-Clipperton zone (lying roughly between Mexico and Hawaii). These potato-sized blobs are typically composed of 29.2 percent manganese, 1.3 percent nickel, 1.1 percent copper, and 0.2 percent cobalt. They form naturally and sit in the silt, where they can be fairly easily scraped up using a drag bucket of sorts. This area is recognized as the planet's largest known source of battery metals and is thought to be capable of supporting production of 280 million EVs. But the metals supply and mining industries are awaiting a green light from various organizations studying environmental impact on fisheries, etc.
The State of the Solid-State Battery
Solid-state batteries promise to solve myriad nasty battery problems: Liquid or gel electrolytes are flammable and can freeze, so they need costly warming, cooling, and safety monitoring. Additionally, fast charging can result in the formation of lithium metal spikes that can pierce the battery's permeable "separator," short-circuiting the cell. One downside of solid-state is that lithium formation on the anode causes the cell to physically expand, which must be accounted for in the pack design. In December 2020 we reported on California-based QuantumScape's promising new solid-state battery, which claimed to boost range by 80 percent and to function at temperatures ranging from -20 to 80 degrees C, all of which attracted a huge investment from the Volkswagen Group. In the months since, we've reported on Toyota's in-house solid-state battery program, which is likely to see production in hybrid vehicles first, and on Factorial Energy of Massachusetts inking a development deal with Hyundai-Kia, claiming its battery can boost range by 20-50 percent.
Gallium-Nitride Semiconductor Chips to Speed Charging
If the long Chipocalypse, currently still crippling auto sales as we write this, has any silver lining, it might be that as the industry tools up to produce more chips, some of that new production can be dedicated to gallium-nitride, rather than silicon-based chips. This semiconductor material, which enabled the first white LED lights and powered Blu-ray disc readers, is able to simultaneously withstand higher voltages and present a smaller resistance to electric current flow relative to either the silicon (Si) or silicon carbide (SiC) materials. Lower resistance means less heat buildup, which can allow smaller devices to deliver greater power flow and faster switching, which in the case of an EV's onboard power inverter can equate to faster charging and/or greater range. Our July 2021 coverage of Texas Instruments and Odyssey Semiconductors GaN chips noted that engineering samples were to be available in late 2021, which should mean production might commence after a few years of development.
"Cylinder-Deactivation" for Electric Motors
It's hard to believe, but the same concept that boosts fuel economy of a piston engine by shutting several cylinders down and making the functioning cylinders work harder can be applied to electric motors, as well. Tula Technologies, the folks who pioneered the Dynamic Fuel Management system in use on more than a million GM trucks and SUVs, has introduced Dynamic Motor Drive. During certain high-speed light-load conditions, where electric motors are not quite as efficient, DMD pulses brief bursts of higher torque to meet the steady-state need, which conserves energy by reducing heat buildup in the rotor core and the power inverter. The power savings are minimal on mainstream permanent-magnet and AC-induction type motors, but they're significant on the cheapest synchronous reluctance motors, which are only used in industrial applications today. The technology promises to eliminate some of the noise and "torque-ripple" vibration that currently disqualifies these motors from EV use. It could also make them more efficient than AC induction and sidestep supply-chain worries inherent in permanent-magnet motors.
Lower Cost Via Simplified Manufacturing
This tech story ran in conjunction with our 2022 Lucid Air Car of the Year coverage, describing the nascent Tesla Model S fighter's many innovations aimed at efficient, lower-cost manufacturing. The battery pack, for example, consists of two injection moldings. One incorporates the sides, top, and all power-delivery busbars, and the other includes the cooling plate. Because this only needs to contact the ends of each cylindrical cell, dramatically less heat-conducting glue is needed than in the radially cooled Tesla packs. The Lucid packs can be robotically assembled in a dark plant. The motor's hairpin-style square-section winding consists of just 24 individual wires that are woven for ease of assembly into the stator and the need for only 24 solder connections. And extreme downsizing of the power inverter, final drive units, and more yield impressive weight savings that pay off in cost and range improvements.
Lithium-Sulfur Triple Threat
Silicon Valley battery-tech company Lyten came out of stealth in September and revealed a battery chemistry boasting triple the traditional lithium-ion batteries' energy storage per pound. That's because a sulfur atom can host two lithium ions, while a typical NMC-oxide cathode can only manage 0.5-0.7 ions. But during charging, those lithium ions sometimes bring sulfur atoms along with them when they migrate to the other electrode, and this depletes the battery. Lyten's secret is to cage each sulfur atom in one of the millions of tiny boxes afforded by their proprietary 3-D graphene sheets. And because carbon is more conductive than sulfur, power flows better than in previous lithium-sulfur batteries. The company says it has demonstrated 1,400 charge/discharge cycles (sufficient for EV use) and that it plans to select a factory site in Q1 of 2022 to support incorporation of LytCells for use in vehicles by the 2025 or 2026 model year. Most experts we spoke with find that timing to be overly optimistic, but perhaps looming local content requirements the USMCA trade agreement calls for in 2023 will inspire overtime development, as all LytCell materials are abundantly available in North America.
"Massless" Structural Batteries
One way to get weight out of battery electric vehicles is to force the batteries to "multitask," by serving as part of the vehicle's structure. Raw, uncoated carbon-fiber strands are great electrical conductors, and because they typically include tiny voids that can easily accept lithium ions, they function well as a battery's negative electrode. Apply a lithium-iron-phosphate/graphene-oxide coating to said fibers, and you've got a structural cathode. Now researchers at Chalmers University of Technology in Sweden think they've found a suitable polymer electrolyte with a cross-linking monomer that enhances the material's structural rigidity while still conducting lithium ions. The team is targeting an energy density about one-third that of mono-tasking dead-weight lithium-ion. Still, studies indicate that replacing roughly 70 percent of the interior and exterior panels and 60 percent of the body structure of a Tesla Model S (85 kWh) or BMW i3 with SBC, should lower mass by 26 and 19 percent with range dropping by 36 and 17 percent, respectively. Alternatively, doubling the thickness and mass of these SBC panels to bring the cars back to mass parity should boost range by 20 percent in the Tesla and 70 percent in the BMW (while adding foot room). Cost estimates for this brand-new technology are not yet available.
Lead image: Mina De La O/Getty Images
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ProsSix-speed manual is pure joyLight, tactile handlingIncredible value proposition ConsBrakes need more staying powerHigh and vague clutch engagement pointRevs can hangFor the as-tested price of the Lamborghini Huracán STO, you could buy 15-and-a-half Si-badged Honda Civics, the lowest-priced, least powerful, and third-lightest contender vying for our PVOTY calipers. Did a humble, sub-$30K, front-wheel-drive economy sedan making only 200 horsepower have a chance against all the Black Series/Wings, M's, V's, GTs and GT3s?Abso-friggin-lutely. In fact, many of the supposed shortcomings of the 2022 Honda Civic Si made it stand out in our field of monstrously powered beasts. Subtracting brute force and head-snapping thrust—and much of the associated sound and fury—sharpened our judges' perception of other attributes. "There's something really tactile and raw about the Civic Si that gets me going," director of editorial operations Mike Floyd said. "Its four-cylinder at full chat just sounds so lean and mean."The Civic Si makes a strong value and fuel economy statement, and the Si's mini-Accord styling adds maturity missing from the previous-generation Civic. Engineering excellence is everywhere you look and touch; every judge called out the light, communicative steering and the "delightful" feel and "super-precise" throws of the Si's six-speed manual transmission, as they extracted all 192 lb-ft from the 1.5-liter turbo inline-four."More low-end torque and a longer horsepower peak are exactly what this engine needed," features editor Scott Evans said. "The torque makes it nicer to drive at every speed, and the power no longer falls off at the top end."To be clear, at nearly 15 pounds per horsepower (more than double the load of some other competitors), the Si is slow, but "Who cares?" was the prevailing sentiment. "It's just so stable and confident in a corner," Evans said. "You just want to drive it faster and faster because it's so rewarding. It's still a momentum car, and that's great because it really makes you work on your driving to get the most out of it."Amid the pages of notes on all our competitors, the adjectives "authentic," "approachable," and "attainable" were reserved for the Si. It was the performance vehicle everyone could quietly appreciate. "There is something appealing about seeing myself in an Si that makes me like it even more in this competition, which is loaded with vehicles I could never hope to actually own in my lifetime," deputy editor Alex Stoklosa said.So why wasn't it even a finalist? For one thing, the only other front-driver in the mix, the Hyundai Veloster N, delivered an even more intriguing and irresistible combination of turbo-boosted fun. And there were some blemishes on the Civic Si's otherwise smooth 'n' sporty driving experience. Squishy at first dab, the Si's brakes faded for some judges by the end of the handling course. Although that's a non-factor on the street, it did not bode well for the at-the-limit track sessions the finalists would encounter. Judges also called out the clutch's light pedal and its high and vague engagement point. The engine's tendency to hang onto revs also drew criticism.For some, the Si just wasn't a big enough step up from the already sublime 11th-generation Civic. Other judges were tantalized but left thirsty for the sharper edge and much-needed power boost promised by the coming Civic Type R. So we shall wait for next year. 2022 Honda Civic Si Specifications Base Price/As tested $28,315/$28,515 Power (SAE net) 200 hp @ 6,000 rpm Torque (SAE net) 192 lb-ft @ 1,800 rpm Accel, 0-60 mph 7.1 sec Quarter-mile 15.3 sec @ 92.8 mph Braking, 60-0 mph 110 ft Lateral Acceleration 0.93 g (avg) MT Figure Eight 26.3 sec @ 0.67 g (avg) EPA City/Hwy/Comb 27/37/31 mpg Vehicle Layout Front-engine, FWD, 5-pass, 4-door sedan Engine, Transmission 1.5L Turbo direct-injected DOHC 16-valve I-4, 6-speed manual Curb Weight (F/R DIST) 2,981 lb (59/41%) Wheelbase 107.7 in Length x Width x Height 184.0 x 70.9 x 55.7 in On Sale Now Show All
Update March 1, 2022: MOL Ship Management Singapore, the company that operated the Felicity Ace ship under the Panamanian flag, has announced the car carrier has capsized and sunken below the surface following the onboard fire. Salvage crews had been battling the fires onboard for weeks in an attempt to salvage some of the ship and its contents. It's unclear if anything from the ship was collected before it sank. The initial blaze is said to have started in the cargo hold, where thousands of cars, including some battery-electric vehicles, were being shipped to North America. Here is the latest statement from the Felicity Ace information resource website:"Initial reports from the local salvage team state that the vessel had sunk at around 9AM local time having suffered a list to starboard. The last vessel position was around 220nm off the Azores. The salvage crafts will remain around the area to monitor the situation. "Update February 18, 2022: Reports now indicate the ship is loaded with vehicles from Audi, Bentley, Lamborghini, Porsche, and VW, including some battery-electric powertrain vehicles that now pose a serious hazard for maritime fire crews attempting to salvage the burning vessel. This story was originally published February 17, 2022, and has since been updated to reflect new information and developments in the ship's fate and the fate of the cargo onboard.
ford bronco Full OverviewProsDune-bashing, mud-splashing, rock-crawling funShockingly good road mannersUnfazed by potholes and frost heaves ConsHalf-ton weight gainCould have had a V-8Slow steering makes for busy handsFrom the driver's seat of the 2022 Ford Bronco Raptor, a pond looks like a puddle, a boulder field looks like a gravel road, and a Mitsubishi Mirage looks like a speed bump. This $70,095 off-road colossus—it's 85.7 inches wide and has 37-inch-tall tires—bounds across the gnarliest terrain and towers over traffic with an air of invincibility that shrinks everything in its path. Objects in the windshield are larger than they appear when you're riding this high, literally and metaphorically.It doesn't take long for this Raptor's immense capability to go to your head. In the same way that the best Porsches make drivers into heroes, the Bronco Raptor turns the person behind the wheel into a villain—reckless, all powerful, above the law. Driving a Bronco Raptor means fighting an incessant urge to straight-line every roundabout. You'll fantasize about blasting by gridlock traffic on the shoulder and turning every open space you pass into an off-road park.Roads? Where We're Going, We Don't Need RoadsTo keep those anti-social and imprisonable impulses at bay, it's important to regularly exercise the baddest Bronco in its natural habitat, which happens to be wherever civilization isn't. Ford has built the Raptor brand around high-speed desert-running antics, and the Bronco abides with big-barrel Fox Racing dampers calming the suspension as it strokes through up to 13 inches of travel in the front and 14 in the rear. Electronically adjustable valving adapts to whatever happens to be pummeling the suspension at any given moment, while internal bypasses cushion the biggest hits.Translation: The harder and faster you drive, the less the Bronco Raptor is fazed by the terrain. In its signature Baja mode, this SUV combines sports-car reflexes with the compliance of a bounce house. The 10-speed automatic cracks off up- and downshifts with perfect timing and the BF Goodrich All-Terrain T/A KO2 tires find traction where there is none, all while bombing over terrain that would fold a Honda in half.This Bronco isn't a one-trick pony, though. It will just as eagerly and expertly pick its way through a boulder-strewn ravine with the 360-degree camera system putting your spotter out of a job. It can wade into a waist-deep swamp and negotiate a mud-slicked trail (as long as those washtub fenders fit between the trees). There's a dizzying amount of adjustability in the Raptor's four exhaust modes, three steering settings, four damper calibrations, locking front and rear differentials, front anti-roll-bar disconnect, and the transfer case that offers rear-wheel drive, high-range four-wheel drive, or low-range four-wheel drive. Trying to tune all that via buttons on the steering wheel, atop the dash, and on the center console proves tedious, but Ford has smartly included shortcuts to several useful combinations via the preset GOAT modes (Normal, Off-Road, Rock Crawl, Baja, Sport, Tow/Haul, Slippery) and a customizable MyMode.Those Road Manners Aren't Shabby, EitherThe Bronco Raptor's 0.67 g of lateral grip and 160-foot 60-mph stopping distance are atrocious by any objective measure of on-road performance, but those numbers bury the subjective excellence of how this truck steers, handles, and rides when it returns to the civilized, asphalt world. Thanks to the impossibly wide stance, the body doesn't roll in corners so much as it squats over the outside wheels, creating a surprising sense of stability.The heavy hiking boots pound the pavement and send tremors into the body at city speeds, but just as it does off road, the Raptor becomes supple—even graceful—the faster you go. On the highway, it floats over expansion joints and potholes, making it the perfect vehicle for traversing our pre-apocalyptic infrastructure in comfort and without fear of damaging a tire.At 3.2 turns lock-to-lock, the steering feels slow when you're sliding the Raptor sideways on dirt or hustling down a tight two-lane. Nevertheless, the steering wheel would be at home in a Mazda Miata, both for the way its sculpted rim fits your hands and its exacting precision.How Quick Is the Ford Bronco Raptor?If there's a weak spot in the Raptor's game, it's the engine. The twin-turbo 3.0-liter V-6 raises output by 103 horsepower and 30 lb-ft of torque compared to the 2.7-liter unit available on lesser Broncos. Yet you wouldn't guess it's packing 418 horsepower from the driver's seat or looking at the numbers. That's because this leviathan weighs 5,778 pounds, or nearly 1,000 more than the V-6-powered Bronco Outer Banks we tested last year. The Raptor hides that weight well in cornering, but it's palpable under acceleration.The Raptor covered 0-60 mph in 6.3 seconds and cleared the quarter mile in 14.9 seconds in MotorTrend testing, both just 0.3 second quicker than the Outer Banks model. That's significantly slower than we originally predicted and worse than what the Raptor's weight-to-power ratio suggests it should be capable of. That also places it two whole seconds behind its chief rival, the 470-hp Jeep Wrangler Rubicon 392. Yet no matter what we tried at the track, the Raptor returned consistently sluggish runs.The engine also fails to deliver on this truck's nickname, "Braptor." It never so much as blips, blats, rips, snorts, burbles, chortles, barks, or braps. The adjustable exhaust is performative theater, merely amplifying the engine's thrum at part-throttle and low rpm. At full throttle in any mode, the V-6 sounds too flat, too muffled, and too high-pitched for a truck this rowdy.The SUV That Conquers AllIn a motoring world overrun with Wranglers and 4Runners, the Bronco Raptor still stands out as one of a kind. With its appetite for high-speed hooning, its composure on paved roads, and its ability to tackle any type of terrain, it's as close as you'll come to finding a truck that will drive anywhere and over anything. Try to resist the urge.Looks good! More details?2022 Ford Bronco Raptor Specifications BASE PRICE $70,095 PRICE AS TESTED $78,750 VEHICLE LAYOUT Front-engine, 4WD, 5-pass, 4-door SUV ENGINE 3.0L Twin-turbo direct-injected DOHC 24-valve 60-degree V-6 POWER (SAE NET) 418 hp @ 5,750 rpm TORQUE (SAE NET) 440 lb-ft @ 2,750 rpm TRANSMISSION 10-speed automatic CURB WEIGHT (F/R DIST) 5,778 lb (55/45%) WHEELBASE 116.5 in LENGTH x WIDTH x HEIGHT 191.0 x 85.7 x 77.8 in 0-60 MPH 6.3 sec QUARTER MILE 14.9 sec @ 91.0 mph BRAKING, 60-0 MPH 160 ft LATERAL ACCELERATION 0.67 g (avg) EPA CITY/HWY/COMB FUEL ECON 15/16/15 mpg EPA RANGE, COMB 318 miles ON SALE Now Show All
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